Introduction
The conflict between Iran and Israel is one of the most enduring and multifaceted geopolitical rivalries in the Middle East, reflecting centuries of historical tensions, ideological divisions, and regional security concerns. This conflict is not merely a bilateral issue; it encapsulates broader dynamics involving global powers, international law, regional alliances, and transnational security risks. As a case study, it offers a comprehensive examination of how history, politics, law, and security studies intersect to shape contemporary international conflicts.
Historical Context: The Roots of the Conflict
While the direct enmity between Iran and Israel emerged after the 1979 Iranian Revolution, historical tensions in the region date back to much earlier periods. Persia (modern-day Iran) and ancient Israel did not share a historical rivalry during antiquity; in fact, the Persian Empire under Cyrus the Great is known for aiding the Jewish community by allowing the rebuilding of the Second Temple in Jerusalem. However, the 20th century ushered in a series of regional transformations that paved the way for modern hostilities. After World War I, the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire created new political borders and power structures in the Middle East. The establishment of Israel in 1948 following the British Mandate over Palestine marked the beginning of Arab-Israeli tensions. However, Iran, under the Pahlavi monarchy, initially maintained relatively amicable relations with Israel, even recognising it as a state in 1950. This was largely driven by Iran’s alignment with Western powers during the Cold War and its strategic opposition to Arab nationalism, particularly under Egypt’s Nasser. The 1979 Iranian Revolution marked a turning point in Iran-Israel relations. The new Islamic Republic of Iran, under Ayatollah Khomeini, denounced Israel as an illegitimate state and a symbol of Western imperialism. Iran’s ideological commitment to supporting Palestinian liberation and its opposition to Israel’s presence in the region became central to its foreign policy. The Shia-Sunni divide, the influence of the Iranian Revolution on regional Islamism, and the export of Iran’s revolutionary ideals further fueled animosity between the two nations. Iran’s ties to militant groups like Hezbollah and Hamas added an asymmetric dimension to the conflict.
Geopolitical Dynamics
The Iran-Israel conflict cannot be viewed in isolation; it is intrinsically linked to broader geopolitical struggles in the Middle East. At the heart of these struggles are competing interests over political dominance, religious leadership, and control over strategic resources such as oil and natural gas. Iran, as a regional power, seeks to expand its influence in the Middle East, particularly through its “Axis of Resistance,” which includes Syria, Hezbollah in Lebanon, and various Shia militias across Iraq and Yemen. Israel, on the other hand, is primarily focused on ensuring its security in a region where it is surrounded by adversaries. These competing objectives have frequently brought Iran and Israel into proxy conflicts, most notably in Syria and Lebanon. Iran’s support for Hezbollah, a Shia militant group in Lebanon, is one of the clearest manifestations of this proxy warfare. Hezbollah’s armed strength and its ideological alignment with Tehran have turned Lebanon into a key battleground for the Iran-Israel rivalry. Israeli military interventions in Lebanon, particularly in 1982 and 2006, aimed to curtail Hezbollah’s influence but have not succeeded in neutralising the group’s threat. Syria also plays a pivotal role in this conflict. During the Syrian Civil War, Iran deepened its involvement in Syria to support Bashar al-Assad’s regime, which has been crucial to maintaining Iran’s strategic land corridor to Hezbollah. Israel, in response, has conducted hundreds of airstrikes against Iranian military positions in Syria, asserting that it will not tolerate an Iranian military foothold near its borders. At the international level, global powers like the United States and Russia have significantly influenced the Iran-Israel dynamic. The U.S. has been Israel’s staunchest ally, providing military aid, diplomatic backing, and defence cooperation. In contrast, Iran has sought to counterbalance this by fostering relations with Russia and China. The U.S. withdrawal from the Iran nuclear deal (JCPOA) in 2018, followed by the re-imposition of sanctions on Iran, has further exacerbated tensions between Tehran and Washington, indirectly impacting the Iran-Israel conflict.
The Asymmetric Nature of the Conflict: A Security Perspective
One of the key features of the Iran-Israel conflict is its asymmetric nature. Unlike conventional interstate wars, much of the conflict takes place through indirect means—proxy groups, cyber warfare, and targeted assassinations. Iran’s strategy has often involved building up its network of proxies across the region, from Hezbollah in Lebanon to various Shia militias in Iraq. These non-state actors allow Iran to exert influence without directly confronting Israel in open warfare. This strategy complicates Israel’s security calculus, as it faces threats not only from state actors but also from irregular forces that operate across borders and are embedded in civilian populations. Cybersecurity has also become a critical aspect of the conflict. Both Israel and Iran have engaged in cyber-attacks against each other. The most prominent example of this was the Stuxnet virus, which was reportedly developed by Israel and the U.S. to sabotage Iran’s nuclear facilities in 2010. Iran, for its part, has launched cyber-attacks against Israeli infrastructure, including its water systems and financial institutions. The possibility of nuclear escalation is another security concern. Israel is widely believed to possess a nuclear arsenal, although it has never officially confirmed this, while Iran’s nuclear ambitions have been a subject of intense scrutiny and negotiation. The JCPOA, signed in 2015, was designed to limit Iran’s nuclear capabilities in exchange for sanctions relief, but Israel strongly opposed the deal, arguing that it did not go far enough to dismantle Iran’s nuclear infrastructure. The collapse of the JCPOA under the Trump administration has heightened fears of a nuclear arms race in the Middle East, as Iran has since resumed uranium enrichment activities.
International Law and the Legality of Actions
The Iran-Israel conflict raises numerous questions concerning international law, particularly with regard to state sovereignty, use of force, and human rights. International legal norms, enshrined in treaties such as the United Nations Charter, the Geneva Conventions, and various Security Council resolutions, are frequently invoked in the context of this conflict.
Under Article 2(4) of the UN Charter, states are prohibited from using force against the territorial integrity or political independence of other states. However, both Iran and Israel have engaged in actions that stretch the boundaries of this principle. Israel’s frequent airstrikes in Syria, aimed at Iranian targets, are justified by Israel as acts of self-defence under Article 51 of the Charter, which allows for the use of force in response to an armed attack. Iran, however, views these strikes as violations of Syrian sovereignty and has argued that Israel’s actions amount to acts of aggression.
The legality of Iran’s support for non-state actors such as Hezbollah is also contentious. Under international law, states are generally prohibited from providing material support to non-state actors engaged in violence against other states. Iran’s backing of Hezbollah, which regularly conducts attacks against Israel, can be seen as a violation of this principle. However, Iran argues that Hezbollah is a legitimate resistance movement fighting against Israeli occupation and that its support is a form of solidarity with oppressed peoples.
Another area where international law is relevant is the question of human rights violations. Both Israel and Iran have been accused of violating the human rights of civilians during the course of their conflict. Israel’s military operations in Gaza, for instance, have been criticised for causing excessive civilian casualties, while Iran’s repression of political dissidents and support for authoritarian regimes in the region raise concerns about its own human rights record.
Recent Developments in the Iran-Israel Conflict
In recent years, the Iran-Israel conflict has escalated, with a combination of proxy wars, direct military confrontations, and diplomatic maneuvers. Several key factors have contributed to the intensification of hostilities: Iran’s increasing influence in the region, its nuclear ambitions, Israel’s preemptive security measures, and the evolving geopolitical landscape. Below, we break down the most significant recent developments in the conflict.
Iran’s Nuclear Program and Diplomatic Stalemate
One of the most pressing current concerns is Iran’s nuclear program. After the U.S. withdrawal from the JCPOA in 2018, Iran began scaling back its compliance with the deal. In 2021, Iran announced that it was enriching uranium to 60% purity, a level close to weapons-grade. While the Biden administration expressed interest in reviving the JCPOA, negotiations have stalled, leaving the international community in a precarious situation. Israel views a nuclear-armed Iran as an existential threat and has warned that it will take military action to prevent Iran from obtaining nuclear weapons. Israel has conducted covert operations, including the assassination of key Iranian nuclear scientists and cyberattacks against Iranian nuclear facilities. In 2020, Mohsen Fakhrizadeh, a top Iranian nuclear scientist, was killed in an attack widely attributed to Israeli intelligence. In response, Iran has vowed retaliation, and tensions between the two countries have escalated further.
Proxy Wars in Syria and Lebanon
The Syrian Civil War remains a central theatre in the Iran-Israel conflict. Iran has been a staunch supporter of Syrian President Bashar al-Assad’s regime, providing military aid, financial support, and personnel to prop up Assad’s government. Through its involvement in Syria, Iran has sought to establish a strategic land corridor from Tehran to Beirut, allowing it to funnel weapons and resources to Hezbollah in Lebanon. Israel, alarmed by Iran’s growing presence near its northern border, has conducted hundreds of airstrikes in Syria, targeting Iranian military assets, weapons shipments, and Hezbollah positions. In 2023, Israeli airstrikes reportedly intensified, with Israel hitting Iranian targets in Damascus and other parts of Syria. These strikes have been justified by Israel as necessary to prevent Iran from establishing a permanent military foothold in Syria, but they have led to heightened tensions between the two nations. Hezbollah, Iran’s key ally in Lebanon, has also remained a critical player in the conflict. The group has amassed a significant arsenal of rockets and missiles, many of which are supplied by Iran. In recent years, Hezbollah has focused on upgrading its missile precision capabilities, which poses a more direct threat to Israeli infrastructure. While open conflict between Hezbollah and Israel has been limited since the 2006 Lebanon War, the possibility of a future confrontation looms large.
The Shadow War and Cyber Conflict
In addition to conventional military operations, Iran and Israel have engaged in what analysts refer to as a “shadow war,” involving covert actions, sabotage, and cyber-attacks. Cyber warfare has become a prominent aspect of the conflict, with both sides targeting each other’s critical infrastructure. One of the most well-known incidents in the cyber domain was the 2010 Stuxnet virus attack, which was allegedly orchestrated by Israel and the United States to sabotage Iran’s nuclear enrichment facilities. This operation set the tone for future cyber hostilities, with both Iran and Israel engaging in retaliatory cyber-attacks. In recent years, Iran has increased its cyber capabilities and launched attacks on Israeli infrastructure. In 2020, Iranian hackers reportedly attempted to disrupt Israel’s water systems, while Israel retaliated with cyber-attacks on Iranian ports and financial institutions. The rise of cyber warfare in this conflict reflects broader trends in global security, where cyber-attacks are becoming a crucial tool in modern warfare, allowing states to target critical systems without engaging in direct military conflict.
Diplomatic Shifts and Regional Realignments
While the Iran-Israel conflict has been characterised by hostility, recent diplomatic developments in the Middle East have added new complexities to the situation. The signing of the Abraham Accords in 2020, which normalised relations between Israel and several Arab states, including the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and Bahrain, represents a significant shift in the region’s diplomatic landscape. The Abraham Accords have isolated Iran to some extent, as more Arab nations align with Israel and the United States. For Israel, the Accords are seen as a way to counter Iran’s influence by creating a coalition of moderate Arab states that oppose Tehran’s regional ambitions. The UAE and Bahrain, which have growing economic and security ties with Israel, share concerns over Iran’s activities in the region. However, the normalisation agreements have also fueled Iran’s grievances. Tehran has condemned the Abraham Accords as a betrayal of the Palestinian cause and an attempt by Israel to gain further regional legitimacy at Iran’s expense. The possibility of broader Arab-Israeli cooperation against Iran is now a key element of the conflict. At the same time, Iran has sought to strengthen its alliances with regional actors who oppose the Abraham Accords. Tehran has bolstered its ties with Turkey, Qatar, and militant groups across the Middle East, positioning itself as the leader of the “resistance” against what it sees as Western imperialism and Israeli expansionism.
Conclusion: A Conflict at a Crossroads
The Iran-Israel conflict is a multifaceted issue that intersects with numerous academic disciplines, including history, geopolitics, security studies, and international law. Its origins are deeply rooted in the historical developments of the 20th century, but its current manifestations reflect the evolving dynamics of regional power struggles, religious ideology, and international interventions. The conflict poses significant challenges to regional stability and global security, particularly in the context of asymmetric warfare and nuclear proliferation. From a legal perspective, both Iran and Israel operate in a grey area, where international norms are frequently contested, and the enforcement of legal standards remains elusive. Resolving the Iran-Israel conflict will require not only diplomatic efforts but also a deeper understanding of the historical grievances, geopolitical interests, and legal frameworks that shape this rivalry. As the Middle East continues to evolve, this conflict will remain a central issue with implications that go far beyond the region itself.
Author: Ms. Hiya Sharma, PG Student, Ganeva’s School of Diplomacy and International Relations.
Disclaimer – The views and opinions expressed in the commentaries/blogs/articles are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of the Forum for Global Studies.